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To better understand what is needed to expand CS education, we first took stock of the extent to which countries around the world have integrated CS education into primary and secondary schools, and how this varied by region and income level. We also reviewed the existing literature on integrating CS into K education to gain a deeper understanding of the key barriers and challenges to expanding CS education globally. Then, we selected jurisdictions at various stages of progress in implementing CS education programs in from multiple regions of the world and income levels, and drafted in-depth case studies on the origins, key milestones, barriers, and challenges of CS expansion.

As shown in Figure 4, the extent to which CS education is offered in primary and secondary schools varies across the globe. Most states and provinces in the U. Multiple countries in Western Europe offer CS education as a cross-curricular topic integrated into other subjects. Latin America and Central and Southeast Asia have the most countries that have announced CS education programs or pilot projects.

Countries in Africa and the Middle East have integrated the least amount of CS education into school curricula. Nevertheless, the number of countries piloting programs or adopting CS curricula indicate a global trend of more education systems integrating the subject into their curriculum.

As expected, students living in higher-income countries generally have better access to CS education. Additionally, high-income countries also offer CS as an elective course to the largest share of the population.

A further 35 percent of high-income countries offer CS on a school-to-school basis while not making it mandatory for all schools. Interestingly, upper-middle income countries host the largest share of students 62 percent who are required to learn CS at any point in primary or secondary schools.

Presumably, many upper-middle income countries likely have national economic development strategies focused on expanding tech-related jobs, and thus see the need to expand the labor force with CS skills. By contrast, only 5 percent of lower-middle income countries require CS during primary or secondary school, while 58 percent may offer CS education on a school-to-school basis.

To expand quality CS education, education systems must overcome enormous challenges. Many countries do not have enough teachers who are qualified to teach CS, and even though there is growing interest among students to pursue CS, relatively few students pursue more advanced training like CS testing certifications Department for Education, or CS undergraduate majors compared to other STEM fields like engineering or biology Hendrickson, This is especially true for girls and underrepresented minorities, who generally have fewer opportunities to develop an interest in CS and STEM more broadly Code.

Our review of the literature identified four key challenges to expanding CS education. Student access to ICT infrastructure, including both personal access to computing devices and an internet connection, is critical to a robust CS education. Without this infrastructure, students cannot easily integrate CS skills into their daily lives, and they will have few opportunities to experiment with new approaches on their own.

However, some initiatives have succeeded by introducing elements of CS education in settings without adequate ICT infrastructure. One study shows that analog lessons can help primary school students develop computational thinking skills Harris, Even without laptops or desktop computers, it is still possible for teachers to use digital tools for computational thinking.

This is an especially useful concept, as many households and schools in South Africa and other developing countries have smartphones and access to analog materials but do not have access to personal computers or broadband connectivity McCrocklin, Indeed, as discussed in Section 3, our analysis of numerous case studies indicates that ICT infrastructure in schools provides a critical foundation to expand CS education.

Many education systems encounter shortages of qualified CS teachers, contributing to a major bottleneck in CS expansion. A well-prepared and knowledgeable teacher is the most important component for instruction in commonly taught subjects Chetty et al. We suspect this is no different for CS, though major deficiencies in the necessary CS skills among the teacher workforce are evident.

Until six years ago, 75 percent of teachers in the U. Other case studies, surveys, and interviews have found that teachers in India, Saudi Arabia, the U. Indeed, developing the necessary skills and confidence levels for teachers to offer effective CS instruction remains challenging. To address these challenges, school systems have introduced continuous professional development PD , postgraduate certification programs, and CS credentials issued by teacher education degree programs.

PD programs are common approaches, as they utilize the existing teacher workforce to fill the needs for special skills, rather than recruiting specialized teachers from outside the school system. For example, the British Computing Society created 10 regional university-based hubs to lead training activities, including lectures and meetings, to facilitate collaboration as part of the network of excellence Dickens, ; Heintz et al.

Most hubs involve multi-day seminars and workshops meant to familiarize teachers with CS concepts and provide ongoing support to help teachers as they encounter new challenges in the classroom. Cutts et al. Still, more evidence is needed on the effectiveness of PD programs in CS education specifically Hill, Less commonly, some education systems have worked with teacher training institutions to introduce certification schemes so teachers can signal their unique qualifications in CS to employers.

This signal can make teacher recruitment more transparent and incentivize more teachers to pursue training. This approach does require, though, an investment in developing CS education faculty at the teacher training institution, which may be a critical bottleneck in many places Delyser et al. Advocates of the approach have recommended that school systems initiate certification schemes quickly and with a low bar at first, followed by improvement over time Code.

Short-term recommendations include giving temporary licenses to teachers who meet minimum content and knowledge requirements. Long-term recommendations, on the other hand, encourage preservice teachers to take CS courses as part of their teaching degree programs or in-service teachers to take CS courses as part of their graduate studies to augment their skillset.

Surveys from various countries suggest that despite a clear economic incentive, relatively few K students express interest in pursuing advanced CS education. For example, 3 out of 4 U. Generally, parents view CS education favorably but also hold distinct misconceptions. For instance, more than 80 percent of U.

Researchers have equated this kind of thinking to the idea that some people could be inherently gifted or inept at CS, a belief that could discourage some students from developing an interest or talent in CS McCartney, Contrary to this belief, Patitsas et al. This signals that CS is no more specialized to specific groups of students than any other subject.

Fostering student engagement, however, does not equate to developing a generation of programmers. Yet, no countries expand access to CS education with the expectation of turning all students into computer programmers.

Forcing students into career paths that are unnatural fits for their interests and skill levels result in worse outcomes for students at the decision margins Kirkeboen et al. Rather, current engagement efforts both expose students to foundational skills that help navigate technology in 21st century life and provide opportunities for students to explore technical fields.

Girls and racial minorities have been historically underrepresented in CS education Sax et al. To help meet the demand for CS professionals, government and philanthropic organizations have implemented programs that familiarize students with CS.

By increasing student interest among K students who may eventually pursue CS professions, these strategies have the potential to address the well documented lack of diversity in the tech industry Harrison, ; Ioannou, For example, some have used short, one-time lessons in coding to reduce student anxiety around CS.

Of these lessons, perhaps the best known is Hour of Code, designed by Code. Other initiatives create more time-intensive programs for students. The U. Other states have offered similar programs, setting up summer camps and weekend workshops in universities to help high school students become familiar with CS Best College Reviews, These initiatives, whether one-off introductions to CS or time-intensive programs, typically share the explicit goal of encouraging participation in CS education among all students, and especially girls and URMs.

Yet, while studies indicate that Hour of Code and summer camps might improve student enthusiasm for CS, they do not provide the kind of rigorous impact assessment one would need to make a definitive conclusion of their effectiveness.

They do not use a valid control group, meaning that there is no like-for-like comparison to students who are similar except for no exposure to the program. There is no one-size-fits-all CS curriculum for all education systems, schools, or classrooms.

Regional contexts, school infrastructure, prior access, and exposure to CS need to be considered when developing CS curricula and competencies Ackovska et al. Rather than prescribing a curriculum, the U. K Computer Science Framework Steering Committee recommends foundational CS concepts and competencies for education systems to consider.

This framework encourages curriculum developers and educators to create learning experiences that extend beyond the framework to encompass student interests and abilities. There is increasing consensus around what core CS competencies students should master when they complete primary and secondary education. Core competencies that students may learn by the end of primary school include:. Competencies that secondary school students may learn in CS courses include:.

Several studies have described various methods for teaching CS core competencies. Integrated development environments are recommended especially for teaching coding skills Florez et al. Others recommended a variety of teaching methods that blend computerized lessons with offline activities Taub et al. This approach is meant to teach core concepts of computational thinking while keeping students engaged in physical, as well as digital, environments Nishida et al. CS Unplugged, for example, provides kinesthetic lesson plans that include games and puzzles that teach core CS concepts like decomposition and algorithmic thinking.

More rigorous research is required to understand the effectiveness of teaching strategies for CS. No consensus has emerged on the best ways to assess student competency in core CS concepts So et al. Though various approaches to assessment are widely available—including classical cognitive tests, standardized tests in digital environments, and CS Unplugged activity tests—too many countries have yet to introduce regular assessments that may evaluate various curricula or instructional methods in CS.

While several assessments have been developed for CS and CT at various grade levels as part of various research studies, there have been challenges to broader use.

This is due to either a lack of large-scale studies using these assessments or diversity in programming environments used to teach programming and CS or simply a lack of interest in using objective tests of learning as opposed to student projects and portfolios.

Fortunately, a growing number of organizations are developing standardized tests in CS and computational thinking. For example, the International Computer and Information Literacy Study included examinations in computational thinking in that had two minute modules, where students were asked to develop a sequence of tasks in a program that related to a unified theme Fraillon et al.

In summary, the current evidence base provides little consensus on the specific means of scaling a high-quality CS education and leaves wide latitude for experimentation.

Consequently, in this report we do not offer prescriptions on how to expand CS education, even while arguing that expanding access to it generally is beneficial for students and the societies that invest in it. Given the current uneven distribution of ICT infrastructure and CS education resources, high-quality CS education may be at odds with expanded access. While we focus on ensuring universal access first, it is important to recognize that as CS education scales both locally and globally, the issues of curricula, pedagogies, instructor quality, and evaluation naturally become more pressing.

Based on the available literature discussed in the previous section, we selected education systems that have implemented CS education programs and reviewed their progress through in-depth case studies. Intentionally, we selected jurisdictions at various levels of economic development, at different levels of progress in expanding CS education, and from different regions of the world. They include Arkansas U. In this section, we draw lessons from these case studies, which can be downloaded and read in full at the bottom of this page.

Figure 6 presents a graphical representation summarizing the trajectories of the case study jurisdictions as they expanded CS education. Together, the elements in the figure provide a rough approximation of how CS education has expanded in recent years in each case. For example, when South Korea focused its efforts on universal CS education in , basic ICT infrastructure and broadband connectivity were already available in all schools and two CS education expansion policies had been previously implemented.

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